CHAPTER SIX:
ETHICS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN BIOTECHNOLOGY
Kabir Mohammed Adamu Department of Biology, IBB University, Lapai |
& | Salihu Ibrahim Maikudi Department of Biology, IBB University, Lapai |
6.1 Biotechnology as an innovation
‘Bio’ refers to life and ‘technology’ refers to the application of information for practical use, i.e. the application of living organisms to create or improve a product. “Biotechnology” encompasses a variety of techniques, such as selecting natural strains of organisms that carry desirable traits, making hybrids by fusing cells from different parental sources, using chemicals and radiation to create mutant strains, or genetically engineering plants, animals, and micro-organisms to contain specific phenotypic characteristics. At its most general level, biotechnology concerns techniques for using the properties of living things to make products or services. Biotechnology consists of ‘the controlled employment of biological agents, e.g. micro-organisms or cellular components, for favorable use’. Biotechnology has been defined as ‘Janus-faced’ implying that there are two sides to it. On one side, we know that the technology allows DNA to be modified so that genes can be moved from one organism to another. On the other, it also entails comparatively new techniques whose results are untested and should be met with care. Biotechnology is ‘the integrated use of biology, microbiology, biochemistry and technology in production or as service operation’. Biotechnology is the commercial employment of micro-organisms and living plant and animal cells to create substances or effects beneficial to people. It includes the production of antibiotics, vitamins, vaccines, plastics, etc. It involves the industrial application of living organisms or their products, which entails the intentional manipulation of their DNA molecules. It may mean making a living cell execute a particular task in a predictable and controllable way. The term biotechnology is occasionally also applied to processes in which micro-organisms such as yeasts and bacteria are cultured under strictly controlled environmental conditions. For this reason, fermentation is occasionally called the oldest form of biotechnology. Genetic engineering techniques are frequently, but not always, used in biotechnology. The Universities Press Dictionary of Biology defines biotechnology as ‘the application of technology to biological processes for industrial, agricultural and medical purposes. The Oxford Dictionary of Biology defines biotechnology as ‘the develop development of techniques for the application of biological processes to the production of materials of use in
medicine and industry.’ The employment of cells and biological molecules to explain problems or make valuable products. These biological molecules include DNA, RNA and proteins. Biotechnology may be defined as ‘the utilization of living organisms in systems or processes for the production of valuable products; it may involve algae, bacteria, fungi, yeast, cells of higher plants and animals or subsystems of any of these or isolated components from living matter’.
In summary, biotechnology is the ‘application of the theory of technology and biological science to generate new products from raw materials of biological origin, e.g. vaccines or food’, or, in other words, it can also be defined as ‘the exploitation of living organism/s or their product/s to change or improve human health and its surroundings’.
An innovation is something that is new. It includes new products as well as new processes. There are two types of innovations; primary innovation (it is one that makes a major advance in a new area; it makes it possible to generate other innovation; an example is the ability to create organisms with new genetic information) and secondary innovation (is one that build on a primary innovation; having a variety of genetically altered plants; methods have been created to enhance the process, such as the development of the gene gun).
Innovations may be from; efforts of highly trained lab researchers; technicians striving to solve practical problems; agricultural producers experimenting with ways to improve their efficiency; businesses seeking new entrepreneurial opportunities; people who have experienced major losses and are seeking solution; consumers who want something better and government funded efforts to solve problem. Innovations lead to new technology.
6.2 Issues and Bioethics
Biotechnology has a wide array of applications. Because biotechnology often involves working with living organisms, issues and ethical questions may arise. Some people believe it is unsafe and unethical to change the genetics of an organism using biotechnology. Others believe that people have the ethical obligation to find ways to improve the quality of life for all people.
6.2.1 Identifying an Issue
An issue is a subject or problem that has more than one point of view. They are sometimes stated as questions. Areas where issues in biotechnology are likely include: changing the genetic material of an organism using artificial means; planting genetically modified crops; raising genetically modified animals; consuming foods from genetically modified plants and animals; using substances that alter or enhance the normal processes of plants and animals; maintaining genetic diversity in wild plants and animals; taking drugs produced through genetic modification and injecting foreign genes into the human body to promote good health. The two most controversial areas in biotechnology are genetic engineering and cloning of organisms. A clone is grown from a single somatic cell of its parent. Somatic cells are the cells that compose tissues, organs, and parts of the body, other than germ cells, which make up the reproductive system in organisms.
6.2.2 Ethics and Biotechnology
Ethics is set of principles that guide human actions. Some people refer to ethics as the rule of appropriate human conduct. Ethics deals with moral principles and values. Our ethics focus on the rightness or wrongness of particular actions. It is difficult to set specific ethical rules. This is because ethics relates to personal judgment and how a person thinks in terms of morals, culture, and/or religion.
Bioethics is the area of ethics that deals with the life sciences. It also includes political and social areas. It is recognized as an important area in the acceptance of biotechnology. For instance, the human genome project has allocated 3 percent of its funds to bioethics and associated issues. Ethic in science can be divided into three areas: scientific misconduct, questionable research practices and other misconduct.
However, because biotechnology deals with genes in living organisms, the ethical implications go even further. Using the wrong protocol and making inaccurate observations violate science ethics. Purposefully reporting data that are false or fabricated is beyond ethics and is a criminal activity.
6.2.3 Specific Ethical Issues
The Human Genome Project: the human genome project involves the mapping of all genes in humans. The project has the following goals; identify all genes in human DNA (80,000 to 100,000); determine the sequences of the chemical base pairs; maintain database of the information; develop methods of data analysis and study ethical issues associated with human genome information and uses. One outcome of the project is the possibility that disease will be detected before it occurs. The disease could then be avoided or treated. The advantages linked to the project therefore, seems tremendous. The ethical issues surrounding the project is addressed by creating: ELSI. ELSI is the ethical, legal and social implication programme. It provides specific guidelines for those involved with the project.
Cloning: the cloning of sheep or cattle is seen as a way to increase production or gain products more efficiently. Therefore, cattle producing an abundance quality of beef would be interesting to clone. It might have the advantage of testing pharmaceutical compounds. Testing drugs on clones would remove some interference. However, the fear of cloned animal is that it can adversely affect the diversity of species. The main ethical issue associated with cloning is the possibility of cloning human beings. Besides, the morals and religious aspects, there is the fear of eugenics. Eugenics is the science of altering the hereditary qualities of a species or breed. Therefore, there is a general consensus among biotechnology scientists that human beings should not be cloned. Much debate focuses on the cloning of human embryo. An embryo is an animal in the early stage of growth and differentiation. The study of embryo could lead to a better understanding of diseases, such as cancer and Parkinson’s. Some culture and religions see embryo as human beings, while others consider life to begin only after birth. Cloning embryo could therefore, be perceived as cloning human beings.
Genetic Engineering (Genetic Modification): it is the process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA make-up of an organism. The barrier between species does not represent a problem with this technology. People could argue against genetic engineering on a moral or religious base. Crops genetically modified to carry herbicides or pest resistance are the products of long and costly years of development. Companies that develop these plants apply for a patent. A patent grants an inventor the exclusive right to make, use or sell the invention. Once a patent has been delivered for a specific genetically engineered crop, only the company that owns the patent can sell or license the crop. Anyone wanting to use the crop has to pay the company. Companies might genetically engineer crops so the seed are sterile. This means that the seed could not be saved for next growing season. The seed would have to be bought again the following year. In a biotechnology world, only those who could afford the modified crop seed would be able to grow the crop. This is a major issue as it relates to poor nations that might need a genetically modified crop for their survival, but cannot afford it.
6.2.4 Issues in Biosafety
Biosafety describes the principles, procedures and policies to be adopted to ensure the environmental and personal safety. Biosafety refers to containment principles, technologies and practices that are required to prevent unintentional exposure to pathogens and toxins, or their accidental release into the environment. Biosafety describes the principles, technologies and practices that are implemented to prevent the exposure of laboratory workers to microorganisms. A fundamental objective of any biosafety program is the containment of potentially harmful biological agents, toxins, chemicals or radiation etc. With the increasing emphasis on adoption of genetic engineering technique in different countries in their life science research and development activities, the biosafety issues are gaining importance to ensure safety of the public and the environment. Biosafety is not only a personal requirement but essential collective efforts to ensure biological safety for a clean and safe environment. This certainly requires awareness among the public along with rules, regulations, monitoring bodies etc. Awareness among the researchers is must so that biological safety can be well taken care at the grass root level. Recognizing the need of biosafety in genetic engineering research and development activities, an international multilateral agreement on biosafety “the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB)” has been adopted by 167 parties, including 165 United Nations countries, Niue, and the European Union. The Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003, and its main objectives are to set up the procedures for safe trans-boundary movement of living modified organisms, and harmonize principles and methodology for risk assessment and establish a mechanism for information sharing through the Biosafety Clearing House (BCH).
6.2.5 Why Biosafety?
a. With the increasing number of countries adopting molecular tools and techniques in their life science research and development activities especially in the areas of agriculture and medicine, the biosafety issues are gaining importance to ensure biological safety for the public and the environment.
b. To conduct research in a safer manner is not only a personal requirement but essential collective efforts to ensure biological safety for a clean and safe environment.
c. This certainly requires rules, regulations, monitoring bodies and awareness among the public. Thus, biosafety per se is an integral part of the laboratory research,
requires awareness among the researchers so that biological safety can be well taken care at the grass root level.
d. GMOs have got commercial applications in agriculture and healthcare industry, often for a better value and quality of the products. However, there are key differences between these two sectors. Healthcare industry is a highly regulated and the products are generally life-saving drugs where certain minor risks can be easily compromised with the life-saving benefits. With the adoption of GM crops in 29 countries grown over 160 million hectares world over, the concerns associated with GMOs are widely discussed. However, the concerns differ greatly, depending on the particular gene-organism combination. Therefore, a case-by-case approach would be required for assessment of the associated biosafety concerns. The safety concerns in agriculture not necessarily associated with the characteristics of the products but the way it is produced, particularly in case of human food.
e. The key players of the healthcare industry (medical practitioner, drug industry and the regulatory authorities) are often well aware of the latest biosafety concerns.
f. The GMOs and the purified products are handled under contained environment. Thus, there is minimized public concern associated with the use of GMOs in healthcare industry.
g. On the other hand, agriculture deals with the crop and animal husbandry; protecting them from insect pests and diseases; improving their taste, quality and acceptability to the consumers, and studying their nutritional and associated effects.
6.2.6 Steps Forward
a) Though there has been increasing awareness about biosafety all over the globe, there is lot to be understood and followed in laboratory research, particularly at grass-root level in the developing countries.
b) Many countries have put into place effective regulatory procedures that are much more rigorous for GM than non-GM food.
c) However, formulation of basic guidelines with multilevel regulatory bodies is required for compliance of biosafety measures.
d) Though biosafety regulatory bodies may exist, their effective functioning is a big question in many of the countries using GMOs and their produc
e) The need of the day is to strengthen internal regulatory body and create awareness among the research mangers, scientists and students about the biosafety requirements.
f) The internal regulatory body at research institute level such as an Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBSC) or its equivalent body consisting of experts from different relevant disciplines.
6.3 Intellectual Property Right/Patent
Intellectual property rights refer to the legal rights given to the inventor or creator to protect his invention or creation for a certain period of time. These legal rights confer an exclusive right to the inventor/creator or his assignee to fully utilize his invention/creation for a given period of time. It is very well settled that Intellectual Property plays a vital role in the modern economy. It has also been conclusively established that the intellectual labor associated with the innovation should be given due importance so that public good emanates from it.
Intellectual Property Right is a strong tool, to protect investments, time, money, effort invested by the inventor/creator of an Intellectual Property, since it grants the inventor/creator an exclusive right for a certain period of time for use of his invention/creation. Intellectual Property Right enhances technology advancement in the following ways:
a. It provides a mechanism of handling infringement, piracy, and unauthorized use
b. It provides a pool of information to the general public since all forms of Intellectual Property are published except in case of trade secrets.
c. Intellectual property protection can be sought for a variety of intellectual efforts including:
a) Patents
b) Industrial designs relate to features of any shape, configuration, surface pattern, composition of lines and colors applied to an article whether 2-D, e.g., textile, or 3-D, e.g., toothbrush and
c) Trademarks relate to any mark, name, or logo under which trade is conducted for any product or service and by which the manufacturer or the service provider is identified; trademarks can be bought, sold, and licensed; trademark
has no existence apart from the goodwill of the product or service it symbolizes;
d) Copyright relates to expression of ideas in material form and includes literary, musical, dramatic, artistic, cinematography work, audio tapes, and computer software; geographical indications are indications, which identify as good as originating in the territory of a country or a region or locality in that territory where a given quality, reputation, or other characteristic of the goods is essentially attributable to its geographical origin.
6.3.1 History of Intellectual Property Right/Patent
The laws and administrative procedures relating to Intellectual Property Right have their roots in Europe. The trend of granting patents started in the fourteenth century. In comparison to other European countries, in some matters England was technologically advanced and used to attract artisans from elsewhere, on special terms. The first known copyrights appeared in Italy. Historically, an ambivalent patent practice existed in regard to inventions involving biological materials. In view of the emergence of modern biotechnology, the past decade has led to a firm practice in this regard.
6.3.2 Patent
A patent is a government-granted right for an individual or business to produce and sell a product for a number of years. A patent is awarded for an invention, which satisfies the criteria of global novelty, non-obviousness, and industrial or commercial application. Patents can be granted for products and processes. A patent grants the patentee the right to exclude others from commercially using the patented invention for a period of twenty years. The underlying assumption is that, through exclusivity, potential inventors are incited to devote their resources to Research and Development of new products and inventions, because of the prospect of acquiring patents and, therefore, exclusivity in the exploitation for a limited period of time. In view of the immensely high investments needed for the development of biotechnological products, this presumption would particularly apply to bio-industry.
6.3.2.1 Reason for Patenting
The basic reason for patenting an invention is to make money through exclusivity, i.e., the inventor or his assignee would have a monopoly if,
a. the inventor has made an important invention after taking into account the modifications that the customer, and
b. if the patent agent has described and claimed the invention correctly in the patent specification drafted, then the resultant patent would give the patent owner an exclusive market.
c. the patentee can exercise his exclusivity either by marketing the patented invention himself or by licensing it to a third party.
6.3.2.2 Things that are Not Patentable
An invention, which is frivolous or which claims anything obvious or contrary to the well-established natural law. An invention, the primary or intended use of which would be contrary to law or morality or injurious to public health. A discovery, scientific theory, or mathematical method. A mere discovery of any new property or new use for a known substance or of the mere use of a known process, machine, or apparatus unless such known process results in a new product or employs at least one new reactant. A substance obtained by a mere admixture resulting only in the aggregation of the properties of the components thereof or a process for producing such substance. A mere arrangement or re-arrangement or duplication of a known device each functioning independently of one another in its own way. A method of agriculture or horticulture.
Any process for the medicinal, surgical, curative, prophylactic diagnostic, therapeutic or other treatment of human beings or any process for a similar treatment of animals to render them free of disease or to increase their economic value or that of their products. An invention relating to atomic energy. An invention, which is in effect, is traditional knowle
6.3.2.3 Types of Patents
a. Utility patents: any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof.
b. Design patents: new, original, and ornamental design for an article of manufacture.
c. Plant patents: production of any distinct and new variety of plant.
6.3.2.4 Importance of Patent to Biotechnology
While we rely on the Intellectual Property system to stimulate innovation across the economy, the modern biotechnology sector is perhaps the most patent dependent by virtue of the enormous costs of discovery in such a long-lead and labor-intensive industry.
6.4 Ethical Considerations in Sperm Bank
A sperm bank (cryobank) is specially licensed enterprise that collects and stores sperm from volunteers. Sperm is used by women to achieve pregnancy with a person who is not her sexual partner. The process for introducing the sperm into the woman is called artificial insemination and it is one of the oldest and most common procedures in assisted reproduction. A sperm donor will be biological father of every child produced as a result of his donation. However, he is not intended to be a legal father. Sperm can be stored for as long as twenty years. However, only 50% of the sperm cells survive that time and have normal capability to fertilize the egg.
6.4.1 History of Sperm Bank
The first successful artificial insemination of a woman with her husband's sperm was recorded in 1790. However, it took centuries for human society to accept the idea to use the sperm of a man other than the woman's husband to achieve a pregnancy. Another problem was linked with the sperm preservation. The first successful human pregnancy with frozen sperm was reported in 1953 and this triggered interest in the possibility of sperm banks. The first one was established in early 70s in USA. However, the full worth of using frozen sperm, in contrast to fresh one, came to the daylight after identification of sexually transmitted disease - AIDS. The use of frozen sperm with a grace time of six months give time to retest the donor for the presence of HIV, hepatitis and other sexually transmitted diseases. The first sperm bank established for therapeutic purpose of infertility at Iowa USA and Tokyo Japan on 1964, which was possible by tremendous scientific advancement like human sperm cryopreservation with glycerol on 1949. The first pregnancy with thawed freezing sperm on 1953 following to the effect of cryopreservation on human sperm on 1776.
6.4.2 Ethical Consideration
a. Limiting the number of donor offspring. The most important issue is limiting the number of off-spring from a single donor. This would prevent accidental consanguinity and incest between donor offspring and spread of genetic
b. Emotional and psychological effects of being a donor offspring. This is a special problem. The majority of donor-conceived children never learn how they were born, while others may suffer of the knowledge that they have a large number of half-siblings.
c. Risk of infection and genetic diseases. The guidelines for selection of a donor are very strict. It is generally accepted that sperm donors as well as sperm should undergo screening that they cannot transmit sexually (hepatitis B and C and HIV) or hereditary disease on the offspring.
d. Age for sperm donors. Literature data on the impact of sperm donor age on outcome of insemination is deficient. It is generally accepted that sperm fertilization ability deteriorates with increasing men age.
e. Anonymous versus non-anonymous sperm donation. This is a very sensitive issue while parents, donors and offspring may have different considerations on anonymous versus non-anonymous sperm donation. The reasons recipients are choosing anonymous or non-anonymous donor, or the reasons donors want to be anonymous or non-anonymous, vary greatly from individual to individual and couple to couple.
f. Who is the father? A key question is whether donor -conceived children should be informed of their biological father and, if so, when, and how much information about donors should be revealed. Some children may react to such information by social and psychological disorders especially if they cannot get more information about the father and cannot meet him.
6.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sperm bank
a. The sperm bank can provide to their clients safe, disease-tested sperm from a wide selection of screened and tested anonymous donors, with comprehensive physical and intellectual information about them.
b. The bank cannot guarantee successful conception, as well as healthy pregnancy or child, and cannot determine the mental or physical characteristics of a child.
c. Failures in the operation of sperm banks. The most important are:
a) Many have no accurate records of babies born from donated sperm of single donor;
b) They do not have update about medical history on donors (their medical form is an image of one day in the life; and what if the donor is a healthy young fellow who do not report accurately about family history);
c) They do not share medical information amongst families (for instance, how many donor-conceived children have been diagnosed with serious diseases such as attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Autism, Tourette's, Von Recklinghausen disease etc.);
d) Some do not adequately counsel their donors.
6.5 Ethical Considerations in Design Baby
In 2004, the term “Designer Baby” could be found in the Oxford English Dictionary and it was explained as a baby whose genetic makeup has been artificially selected by genetic engineering combine with in vitro fertilization to ensure the presence and absence of particular gene and characteristics. Revolution in technology, fierce competition for survival and desire to achieve a superior human has led new generation scientists to develop a disease free genetically modified offspring with desired traits. The term ‘Designer baby’ has gained much popularity amongst rich and western countries where an offspring is artificially selected by genetic engineering combined with In Vitro fertilization. Success in modifying other mammals through these methods led proposals to apply such methods on humans for biological improvement. The first designer baby was Adam Nash, produced by a team from
the Reproductive Genetics Institute in Chicago, led by Yuri Verlinski. Adam was created to obtain his hematopoietic tissue, which was necessary to treat Molly, his six-year-old sister, who suffered from Fanconi anemia. After four failed attempts, Adam was finally born on 29 August 2000 and the blood from his umbilical cord was able to be transplanted by Dr. John Wagner’s team to his sister in the first week of October that year, in the University Hospital, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
6.5.1 Technique of Creating Designer Baby
The whole process is done artificially where first the ovaries are hyper stimulated by giving hormones and then when the follicles mature. Transvaginal ultrasound-guided oocyte retrieval is done and through ICSI technique (intra cytoplasmic sperm injection) ovum are fertilized in test tube. These fertilized ova are brought till embryo (eight cell) stage at which point cells are removed and tested using a technique known as Pre implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD). PGD is performed prior to implantation. Genetic diseases like Cystic fibrosis, Down’s syndrome, muscular dystrophy, sickle cell anaemia etc. are tested by using the technique of bio technology that is polymerase chain reaction. Analysis of genetic material (DNA) from a single cell is performed using a technique called FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridization) or PCR. During the analysis on the single cell, the embryos are kept in culture and allowed to further divide. Many couples use this procedure if there are any inherited disorders in their genes to decrease the possibility that the disorder will passed to their child. If the genetic disorder appears the defected genes are replaced with healthy genes. Unaffected embryos are transferred into the uterus to achieve an outcome of a chromosomally normal baby. Some genetic disorders are specific to one gender or another, such as hemophilia, which usually affects boys. Doctors may examine the cells to determine the gender of the embryo. In a case where a family has a history of hemophilia, only female embryos are selected for placement in the uterus. This practice is at the center of a larger debate about whether parents should be able to choose embryos purely on the basis of gender. Some people worry that it could lead to an imbalance between genders in the general population, especially in societies that favor boys over girls, such as China.
6.5.2 Future/Bioethics Concern
a) Ethical, legal, social controversies loose grip on society as demands of creating such babies make its own market.
b) However, only the rich can afford such techniques as the IVF and Pre implantation genetic diagnosis costs high per cycle and a couple needs to repeat attempts for successful pregnancy as the success rate of IVF is only 10 -35%
c) The bioethicists are concerned about the future of humans. As such enhance humans artificially selected might become prejudiced against one another due to a feeling of lost common humanity with non-enhanced groups.
d) Also, the society will be bias towards the superior humans than the natural ones.
e) Moreover, the future of these designer babies is still not known.
f) There is a wide variety of biological risks with genetic modifications. New diseases may emerge which will be difficult to prevent.
g) One report from Children conceived through cytoplasmic transfer has been diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder where symptoms range from mild delay in speech to autism.
h) The booming fertility market and fertility doctors becoming GOD for infertile couples and experimenting on embryos before implantation should be under surveillance of medical experts and law.
i) The imperfect and abnormal embryos are destroyed and there is no debate whether to destroy such embryos is legal or criminal.
j) Mass discrimination among humans in future can even lead to violence.
k) Genetic and biological risks are yet to be identified.
l) A big danger is awaited in future and immediate action is required to prevent it.
6.5.3 Ethical Assessment
The eight most important aspects to consider in an ethical reflection on the production of designer babies are:
a) the instrumentalization of the child produced in such a way that these children would be treated as commodities;
b) the secondary consequences that could result from the legal authorization of this technique could open the door to other ethically unsuitable techniques, especially sex selection,
c) the benefit that the parents may obtain;
d) the impossibility of obtaining the consent of the child itself;
e) the medical problems that the use of the preimplantation genetic diagnosis technique may cause in the embryo generated;
f) as well as those inherent in the in-vitro fertilization technique;
g) the negative ethical burden involved in the high number of embryos lost with this practice, i.e. the high number of human lives destroyed;
h) and finally, whether or not a medical alternative to the production of designer babies exists, since if so, their generation would be doubly unjustif
6.5.4 Arguments for Designer Babies
a) Children are already “engineered” by their parents. Parents choose where their kids go to school, what they eat, and what family traditions they will have. Parents have always been “designing” their babies in this way.
b) Genetic engineering is only a new tool to design babies. Genetic editing could be used to edit mutations associated with diseases.
c) This could mean that a child with a genetic disease like cystic fibrosis could avoid a lifetime of suffering.
d) Genetic engineering could end some genetic diseases. By eliminating certain genes at the embryo stage, a person will never be able to pass on the disease.
e) This could reduce human suffering caused by genetic diseases.
f) Those who are against genome editing would not have to undergo the procedure for their own children. Other parents could have the freedom to use genetic editing if they want.
6.5.5 Arguments against Designer Babies
a) Many genes have more than one effect. The traits we choose may be accompanied by unwanted changes.
b) A study in mice discovered one genetic change that improved learning. However, the change also increased the mouse’s sensitivity to pain.
c) Our genetic “improvements” might also have accidental bad effects.
d) Genetic editing would occur on the embryo, before a child is able to agree to the change. It is unfair to the child to force this change on him or her.
e) Genetic editing of babies would be unfair. Editing genomes would likely be very expensive. This means only rich families could afford genetic engineering for their children. This might mean that the children of rich families may live longer or have other advantages.
f) If a parent chooses a child’s traits, that child may feel like they have less control over their life. If a parent pays for genetic engineering to have a child with an amazing voice, that child may feel forced into being a singer. This could unfairly increase pressure on the child to meet high expectations of their paren
6.6 Ethical Considerations in Organ Donation/Transplant
Transplantation is the treatment of choice for end-stage organ disease as it provides a better quality of life and long-term survival to recipients. An organ transplant is a surgical operation where a failing or damaged organ in the human body is removed and replaced with a new one. An organ is a mass of specialized cells and tissues that work together to perform a function in the body. The heart is an example of an organ. It is made up of tissues and cells that all work together to perform the function of pumping blood through the human body. Any part of the body that performs a specialized function is an organ. Therefore, eyes are organs because their specialized function is to see, skin is an organ because its function is to protect and regulate the body, and the liver is an organ that functions to remove waste from the blood.
A graft is similar to a transplant. It is the process of removing tissue from one part of a person’s body (or another person’s body) and surgically re-implanting it to replace or compensate for damaged tissue. Grafting is different from transplantation because it does not remove and replace an entire organ, but rather only a portion.
Not all organs are transplanted. The term “organ transplant” typically refers to transplants of the solid organs: heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, pancreas and intestines. Advances in immunosuppression, surgical techniques, medical and pharmacological progress have made transplantation possible from cadaveric organ donors starting in 1967, when Christian Barnard had undertaken the world’s first cardiac transplant. Transplantation undoubtedly saves lives or improves the quality of life for patients with end-stage organ failure. It is already scientifically proven that there is a substantial long-term survival advantage for renal transplantation compared with dialysis.
6.6.1 Ethical Consideration
The Organ Shortage: the primary ethical dilemmas surrounding organ transplantation arise from the shortage of available organs. Not everyone who needs an organ transplant gets one and in fact, the scales tip quite heavily in the opposite direction. The United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) maintains a comprehensive, up-to-date website that gives the status of people awaiting organ transplants. According to their website (updated daily at www.unos.org) over 83,000 people are currently awaiting transplants in the United States. Should someone who has received one organ transplant be given a second transplant? Or should people who have not had a transplant be given priority over those who have already had one?
Should people whose lifestyle choices (smoking, drinking, drug use, obesity, etc.) damaged their organ be given a chance at an organ transplant?
Should suicidal individuals be given an organ transplant? What if they attempted suicide in the past but are not currently contemplating suicide?
Should people who have young children be given an organ transplant over a single person? Over an elderly person? Should age and whether or not a person has children even matter?
Should people who can’t afford expensive anti-rejection drugs be passed over for a transplant? Should people who don’t have insurance and can’t pay for a transplant be allowed to go on the national waiting list?
Should condemned prisoners receive organ transplants? What if they are serving a life sentence without parole?
One way to avoid the ethical problems associated with the shortage of transplantable organs is to increase the number of donor organs. However, fears abound that policies to maximize organ donations could go too far – leading to organ farming or premature declarations of death in order to harvest organs.
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