CHAPTER FIVE: GENDER ROLES IN ASIA

Zumilah Zainalaludln & Azima Ali

5.0    Introduction: Gender Role

While the primary focus of gender development theories has traditionally revolved around early childhood development (Miller, 2016; West, 2015; Kohlberg, 1966 cited in Pickren et al. 2012, and Freud, 1916/1963), or have centred on adults (Deaux & Major, 1987), sociological theories centre on socio-structural factors in the development and functioning of gender theories (Epstein, 1988; Eagly, 1987; Berger, Rosenholtz, & Zelditch, 1980). The acquisition of gender roles through social processes is commonly referred to as socialisation.

Children acquire knowledge about acceptable and unacceptable behaviours for their sex through observation of others. This process involves observing the behaviours of caregivers and peers. When children deviate from societal expectations of gender roles, they may experience feelings of shame instigated by caregivers or peers. As a result, gender role usually becomes an internal guide for behaviour early in childhood. As many studies investigate, gender identity shaped by environment and society can be affected by gender roles. This bidirectional relationship plays a memorable role in human being life.

5.1    Social Cognitive Theory – Combined Perspective

Social Cognitive Theory is a new improved theory, which, as developed by Bandura, describes both aspects of psychological and sociological perspectives (see Rural Health Information Hub 2018). The social cognitive theory of gender role development indicates psychological and socio-structural determinants within a unified conceptual framework (Bandura, 1986, 1997). According to him most of the stereotypic attributes and roles linked to gender arise more from cultural design than from biological features (Bandura, 1986; Epstein, 1997). Sociological theories emphasise the social construction of gender roles mainly at the institutional level (Lorber, 1994).

Social cognitive theory recognises the significant impact of evolutionary factors on human adaptation and development. However, it rejects the notion that social behaviour is solely determined by biological evolution, disregarding the influence of social and technological advancements that create new environmental pressures for adaptation (Bandura, 1999). This theory encompasses various unique human characteristics (Bandura, 1986). The ability to symbolise is a vital capacity that enables individuals to comprehend their surroundings, shape their environment, and effectively influence all aspects of life.

Social cognitive theory posits that gender development is influenced by environmental factors and socially non-situated intra-psychic processes. It explains gender development through the concept of triadic reciprocal causation. According to this model, personal factors such as cognitive, affective, and biological events, along with behaviour patterns and environmental events all interact and mutually influence each other in bidirectional manner (Bandura,1986).

The concept of bidirectional causation in social cognitive theory does not imply that all interacting factors have equal strength. Instead, it suggests that the rate at which individuals acquire knowledge or skills varies depending on the mode of influence. For instance, learning through direct experience (Bandura, 1986). Modelling, one of the key concepts in Bandura’s social cognitive theory, is considered a potent method for transmitting values, attitudes, and behavioural patterns (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978).

Modelling is widely recognised as a highly influential and effective method of transmitting values, attitudes, and patterns of thought and behaviour (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978). This form of learning known as abstract modelling allows individuals to grasp underlying rules and structures beyond specific content or details. By extracting these rules, observers can generate new behavioural patterns that align with the structural properties. However, modelling goes beyond mere imitation or mimicry of specific actions, as social cognitive theory distinguishes it from simple replication. Modelling serves various purposes in gender development, including the function of vicarious acquisition. Observational learning in this context is influenced by four core processes:

 

5.1.1      Attention Processes

This observation and extraction of information from modelled activities are influenced by various factors, determining what is selectively observed at a given level. These factors include cognitive abilities, preconceived notions, and personal preferences of observers. Additionally, the remarkable, appealing, and functional aspects of modelled activities also play a role in shaping exploration within social and environmental contexts. The models themselves serve as examples of activities that are considered suitable for each of the two sexes. By observing the distinct performances of male and female models’ children acquire gender stereotypes and roles. Consequently, both sexes learn about the roles associated with males and females through the process of observing models (Bussey & Bandura, 1984, 1992).

Additionally, once children can distinguish between the sexes, they exhibit a preference for paying more attention to models of the same sex rather than those of the opposite sex (Bussey & Bandura, 1984). This preference owes to the fact that observers tend to focus more on and acquire a greater understanding of modelled behaviour that they perceive as personally relevant (Kanfer, Duerfeldt, Martin, & Dorsey, 1971). As society places greater emphasis on adherence to gender roles for boys throughout their lives compared to girls, boys tend to show a higher degree of attention toward models of the same sex (Slaby & Prey, 1975). But when children are simultaneously exposed to male and female models and must choose which one to pay attention to, they exhibit a selective focus on same sex models, resulting in increased learning about, and attention to, those models (Bussey & Bandura, 1984).

5.1.2      Cognitive Representational Processes

If a person does not remember modelled events, they won’t be significantly influenced by them. To retain these events in memory, there is an active process of transforming and organising information, shaping it into rules and behavioural patterns. Additionally, preconceived notions and emotional states have a fundamental impact. Symbolic representation and engaging in these modelled activities not only improve skill acquisition but also boost the individual confidence in successfully performing those activities (Kazdin, 1979).

5.1.3      Behavioural Production Processes

In this conceptual state, the translation of symbols into suitable actions takes place. The mechanism responsible for this translation involves transformative and generative operations. As a result, individuals can generate numerous variations of the skill.

5.1.4   Motivational Processes            

Individuals do not necessarily put into action everything they acquire through learning. The execution of behaviour learned through observation is influenced by three types of motivators: direct, vicarious, and self-evaluative. It is evident that individuals are more inclined to adopt modelled behaviour styles if they lead to desirable outcomes, as opposed to situations where no such outcomes are achieved (Bandura & Barab, 1971). People are motivated by the success of others who share similarities with them, but they are deterred from engaging in behaviours that they have witnessed resulting in negative consequences. Additionally, the evaluative responses individuals generate towards their own actions play a role in determining which observationally learned activities they are most likely to pursue. They tend to express satisfaction with behaviours that align with their personal preferences and reject those that they personally disapprove of.

5.2    Gender Role Conflict

Gender role conflict, as defined by Garnets and Pleck in 1979, refers to the adverse effects caused by societal gender expectations. It manifests as a psychological condition in which gender roles result in negative consequences, such as detrimental psychological states or impacts on individuals and others. This conflict ultimately hampers an individual's ability to fulfill their full human potential or limits other possibilities. Additionally, sex role strain, also identified by Garnets and Pleck in 1979, refers to an internal psychological process that can lead to poor psychological adjustment, particularly a diminished sense of self-esteem.

5.2.1      Social Cognitive Theory of Bandura

When a society imposes strict gender roles, it gives rise to issues of gender stereotypes. According to Steffen's (1984) perspective, gender stereotypes emerge from the assignment of women and men to specific social roles. One key differentiation revolves around the contrast between homemaking and working outside the home (Eagly and Steffen 1984, 1986; Hoffman and Hurst 1990). For instance, women are commonly expected to fulfill caregiving responsibilities within the household, such as cooking, cleaning, nurturing children, and doing laundry. However, if a man in a household takes on tasks traditionally associated with women, such as washing clothes, cooking for the family, and nurturing the children, society may perceive both the man and the women in that family in specific ways. The society might label such a wife as "queen controlled," suggesting that she dominates her husband, while the husband may be seen as weak or cowardly. When society rigidly enforces gender roles and deviating from these roles leads to social punishment, such as being labeled a cowardly husband, queen-controlled wife, or other derogatory terms, gender stereotypes become a detriment to the overall well-being of society.

5.2.2      Work-Family-Gender Role Conflict

Masculinity, as defined by traditional gender roles, is associated with power and control in emotional situations, the workplace, and sexual relationships. Desirable male traits include competitiveness, independence, assertiveness, ambition, confidence, toughness, anger, and, in extreme cases, violence. Men are expected to avoid characteristics typically associated with femininity, such as emotional expressiveness, vulnerability (weakness, helplessness, insecurity, worry), and intimacy, especially when it comes to displaying affection towards other males.

Traditional femininity, on the other hand, is characterised by nurturing behaviour, being supportive, and prioritising relationships. Women are expected to be emotionally expressive, dependent, passive, cooperative, warm, and accepting of subordinate positions in marriage and employment. Traits like competitiveness, assertiveness, anger, and violence are considered incompatible with femininity and are generally not deemed acceptable for women.

These gender role differences have existed throughout history. Evolutionary theorists attribute them to physiological characteristics that were believed to enhance survival of the species. In primitive societies, men took on roles such as hunting and protecting their families due to their physical strength. Women, with their ability to bear and nurse children, naturally assumed nurturing roles and also engaged in less physically demanding tasks like gathering and preparing food. These gender-based labour roles persisted into the era of recorded human history, as people formed early civilized societies and settled in cities.

During the industrial movement in the 1800s, a clear division of labour emerged, separating public and private domains. Men started leaving home to work, while women primarily remained within the household. Previously, both men and women engaged in respected and productive activities on their homesteads. However, as men ventured into the public sphere and earned money that could be exchanged for goods and services, they gained economic independence, power, and influence. In contrast, women's work was not easily transferable or valued in the same way. Consequently, women were reduced to a perception of fragility and emotional vulnerability that was deemed appropriate only for domestic tasks and child-rearing.

5.2.3      Rights for Equality and Equity Among Iranian Women

Authors have put forth the argument that Iranian women have experienced a continuous decline in their economic and social standing since the process of Islamisation. One thing that remains evident is the presence of significant gender asymmetry. In the realm of social theory, the concept of gender has attained a level of analysis akin to class and ethnicity. Across different cultures, the cultural perceptions of male and female as two complementary yet mutually exclusive categories, in which all individuals are classified, form a gender system that aligns biological sex with cultural norms and societal hierarchies. While the specific meanings attached to these concepts may vary, a gender system is always intricately intertwined with political and economic factors within a given society. Consequently, the cultural construction of sex into gender and the inherent asymmetry found in gender systems worldwide are seen as interconnected with the overall organisation of social structures. This raises a fundamental question: What factors contribute to the perpetuation of gender inequality?

Gender distinctions are not arbitrary or innate but rather socially constructed and perpetuated through institutional mechanisms. The main driver of gender inequalities is the relative lack of economic power that women experience. This extends to areas such as marriage, parenthood, and sexuality, which have been thoroughly examined by various researchers. The gendered division of labour, both in society as a whole and within households, reinforces the disadvantages faced by women and contributes to the stability of the gender system. This situation is maintained through legal and ideological means. Even in societies that claim to uphold social equality, the definitions of "masculine" and "feminine" are legally and culturally established, resulting in differential access to political power, economic resources, and distinct cultural portrayals of men and women. These inequalities are learned and internalised, and the failure to acknowledge the disadvantages faced by marginalised groups perpetuates the cycle.

Many governments do not actively prioritise the improvement of women's status and opportunities, and there is a lack of widespread autonomous women's organisations dedicated to safeguarding and advancing women's interests and rights. In certain countries and social groups, high fertility rates restrict women's roles and choices, further reinforcing gender inequality. The legal system, educational system, and labour market all contribute to the construction and perpetuation of gender inequality and the ongoing disadvantages faced by women.

Sarah Rosenfield's research in 1989 demonstrated that women perform 66% more domestic work compared to men, sleep half an hour less per night, and effectively work an extra month each year. It is evident that these increased workloads and reduced time for rest and relaxation significantly contribute to stress and pose obstacles to women's mental health.

5.2.4      Multiple Gender Roles

Women who choose or are able to prioritise staying at home for child-rearing face more significant challenges in the event of divorce. These women often rely on marriage as their primary source of financial security. Unfortunately, society tends to undervalue domestic skills such as childcare and housecleaning, resulting in poor financial compensation for these roles. Consequently, women who have never been employed and subsequently go through a divorce often have limited options for securing sufficient income (Alkali & Zumilah, 2012).

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