CHAPTER THREE: PATRIARCHY AND GENDER INEQUALITY IN GBAGYILAND

Juliana Hussaina Dauda

3.0    Introduction

In Gbagyi culture, gender inequality is shaped and perpetuated by patriarchal practices, depriving women of agency over their sexuality. This is evident in the case of Gbagyi people in Niger State, Nigeria, customs hold greater influence than dominance, legal systems, and even religion. Over time, customary practices have become intertwined with religion and are now believed by the community to be mandated by their adopted deities. The study examined patriarchy and the role it plays in influencing inequality. Efforts were undertaken to emphasise the process through which patriarchy is nurtured during socialisation, commencing within the family and extending its influence to various domains of society such as education, religion, politics, and economy. Lastly, light is shed on patriarch practices that lead to the control of female subordination. The location of the study is Niger State. The units of analysis were selected because of their rural nature and strict adherence to the traditions of the Gbagyi people. Instruments adopted for the study are oral tradition and non-participant observation based on some incidental events of the socio-economic life of some villages of Gbagyiland were employed for the study. The villages studied were purposively selected due to the researcher’s proximity to them. Primary and secondary data were used for the study. Whereas primary data were elicited through ethnography (oral tradition, observation), secondary data were got from documentary records. The main argument in this paper is that patriarchy leads to gender inequality and subordination of women and recommends that women should be seen as partners and not as second-class citizens relegated to the background.

Culture has continued to impact negatively on feminine sexuality despite attempts to mitigate its influence by challenging the existing norms. Radical feminism provides insight into the intricate relationship between femininity, sexual equality, and culture within the traditional Gbagyi society. Radical feminists contend that cultural practices confine women, resulting in their subjugation due to the patriarchal structure of the society ' “Culture” encompasses a wide range of elements, referring to customs, institutions and achievements of a particular nation, people or group’ (Tylor, 1871).

3.1    Concept of Patriarchy

Patriarchy is the systematic subjugation of women by men (Sanit, 2009) stemming from men’s aspiration to control women and upheld through their access to resources that enable such control (Nnorom, 2006). It is a set of symbols and ideas that make up a culture embodied by everything including ideas about the nature of things, including men, women and humanity. It is furthermore, described as a system of male authority which oppresses women through its social, political and economic institutions and its structure, a major feature of the African society.

3.2    Theoretical Framework

Sex role and radical feminist theories are used for this article because of how they complement each other in determining how roles change at home and at work. Oakley (1972) stressed the point that house chores as a part of feminine gender role is one of the basic occupations exclusively feminine and to be performed by housewives. Oakley emphasised that the refusal to acknowledge housework as work is both a cause and a reflection of the lower status of women in society. She distinguished between men and women. Gender refers to the cultural norms which may be attached to the sexes. Most societies prescribe different activities and characteristics for male and female that may come to be perceived as natural by the people concerned. In this way the family’s range of biological differences between males and females are heightened and compounded by culturally prescribed gender role differences.

Radical feminists see patriarchy as a societal structure in which men monopolise all social roles while relegating women to subordinate positions. They argue that this enduring social system has persisted due to its universal and long-standing nature, which serves as its primary psychological tool (Charvet, 1982). The radical feminists assert that the primary avenue for women’s subjugation lies in the realm of sexuality prompting them to advocate for women to reclaim autonomy over their bodies from men. They contend that the true oppressor of women is the patriarchal system, which cannot be reformed but must be completely dismantled. To radical feminists, it is not only the legal and political structures of patriarchy that must be overturned but also its cultural and social structures, including the family, academy, and the church. By focusing on biological origins of women’s oppression, radical feminists analyse how gender (femininity and masculinity) and sexuality has been utilised to subordinate women to men. The post-modernists assert that women subordination results from the cultural construction of who a man is or a woman is. They argue that the use of word and language affect the psyche on the definition of men and women. They emphasised the effectiveness of the capacity of language in shaping thoughts and desires. Thus, their conception of why women are oppressed has been criticised for neglecting the social context of power relations and failing to recognise the systematic oppressions of gender, class and race (Walby, 1992). In summary, sex role and radical feminist theories have offered satisfactory theoretical explanations for the study of women in relation to socio-cultural activities in Gbagyiland.

3.3    Methodology

The locations of the study are Ijah-Gbagyi, Garam, Egwa and Gwada all in Niger State, Nigeria. They were selected because of their rural nature and strict adherence to the traditions of the Gbagyi people. Instruments adopted for the study are oral tradition and non-participant observation based on some incidental events of socio-economic life of some (Ijah-Gbagyi, Garam, Egwa and Gwada) villages of Gbagyiland were employed for the study. The villages studied were purposively selected due to the researcher’s proximity to them. the methodology adopted is survey based on informant interview. Primary and secondary data were used for the study. Whereas primary data were elicited through ethnography (through oral tradition), secondary data were got from documentary records.

3.4    Cultural Factors that Influence Patriarchy

3.4.1      The Family

From an early age, the family, as a social institution, becomes a core-foundation for the perpetuation of patriarchal practices by instilling in the youth the acceptance of distinct gender roles. In the context of Gbagyi traditions, the process of socialisation explicitly distinguishes between the upbringing of girls and boys, beginning from a very young age. In Gbagyi culture, boys are raised to perceive themselves as providers, protectors, and leaders of their households, while girls are taught to be compliant, submissive wives, and submissive wives, and caretakers of the home. This distinct socialisation is rooted in the perception of women as objects rather than equal human beings within the society (Charvet, 1982). To this, a Gbagyi elder statesman Yohanna, (2015) said ‘a male child in the community is collectively groomed to be a household manager by inculcating traits of boldness, dominion and leadership over his father’s property as well as his future matrimonial home. He fetches corn from the barn for his mother through the instruction of his father to make him know that his mother is subject to his father and so shall it be in his relationship with his wife’. Furthermore, he said ‘as soon as a young man is of age, he is given a portion of land for farming. His ability to till the farm successfully, would determine the extent he was ready to not only farm but also be able to feed a woman he would marry’. The findings of McDowell and Pringle’s study (1992) support the notion that women are consistently defined in relation to men and are depicted as dependent on, and subordinate to, them. Consequently, women are socialised to adopt these characteristics, which position them in a state of dependency on men. Such qualities encompass passivity, gentleness, submission and a constant desire to please men.

Within Gbagyi culture, when a girl enters puberty, the process of socialisation focuses on moulding her into a pleasing and submissive wife for her future husband. Additionally, her sexuality is explicitly shaped, teaching her how to utilise it for the advantage of men. These cultural teachings contribute to a dependence syndrome, leading many African women to rely heavily on their husbands for support. Consequently, in the event of a husband’s passing, women often seek to remarry swiftly to find another pillar of support to lean on.

Within the family structure, there exists a preference for male children over female children. In fact, males inherently hold authority and dominance over females by virtue of their birth, regardless of their birth order. Even if the male child is not the eldest within the family, he automatically assumes the role of the household. The discrimination against the female child is exacerbated by the expectation that she will eventually marry and become part of another family, while the male child is responsible for upholding the family name by bringing new members into the family (Human Rights Monitor, 2001). Due to the belief that girls are more likely to marry and leave the family, some parents exhibit a preference for educating the boys over girls. This preference is reinforced by the toys parents choose for their children, which play a role in the socialisation process. For example, girls are often given kitchen utensils or toys associated with domestic tasks by female siblings, while boys receive toys such as farm instruments or those that require physical or mental exertion from male siblings. Consequently, girls are socialised to fulfil roles as wives and mothers, being encouraged to exhibit traits of gentleness, emotional sensitivity, and maternal instincts. Additionally, parents, particularly fathers, may reprimand boys who cry easily, show shyness, or avoid fights, associating such behaviour with girls.

At puberty, relations play an active role in ensuring that the girl child understands her sexuality and the implications it brings upon her life. Instructions are vaguely given to the girl-child at puberty without further explanations. As a result, confusion sets in as girls begin to treat their counterparts with suspicion without full information on why they should do so. She grows up with confusion as she is taught the merits of a good wife to the man she has been taught and told to be wary of.

The Gbagyi culture expresses tolerance towards male sexual conduct while disproving of female sexual behaviour (International Centre for Human Rights, 1996). The culture has freedom for males to engage in sexual exploration before marriage, whereas females are expected to maintain virginity until marriage. Failure to do so could potentially harm the family’s reputation, as the prospective son-in-law may refuse to pay bride price. The influence of patriarchal practices, initially instilled within the family during socialisation process, extends beyond familial boundaries and permeates other social institutions such as religion, marriage, economy, education, and politics.

3.4.2      Marriage

Marriage in Gbagyi culture holds deep reverence, and a married woman is accorded with utmost respect. In fact, the heart desire of an average Gbagyi woman is marriage. In marriage, it does not matter the number of wives the husband wants and have with extra-marital affairs as a bonus. When such a scenario happens, however, the wife is blamed for failing to satisfy her husband or for failing to live up to expectations as a wife while the older women try to make it look like a norm as they try to make young women accept the frivolities of men’s unfaithfulness.

On the other hand, a married woman that engages in an extramarital affair is labelled as ‘loose and lousy.’ She is sent to her parents for some disciplinary action on her or she risks being divorced. In addition, it is expected that married women adopt a submissive and sexually passive role towards their husbands. Men take the lead in initiating sexual activity and also establish the terms and conditions for such encounters. Similarly, Messer (2004) anticipates that women fulfil the sexual desires of their husbands. Consequently, when a husband expresses the desire for sexual intimacy, the wife is expected to comply as it is considered an obligation within the marriage agreement. To corroborate this assertion, Zhayinyikwo (2015) narrated a story about a young virgin woman forced by elders of the village to yield to her husband’s sexual demand because “she did not own herself”. Friends and relations who helped to arrange firewood, pots, foodstuff, soup ingredients and other kitchen utensils accompanied the woman to the husband’s house. According to Zhayinyiko,

On the day that her (bride) best friend finally left, the husband went in to her in the night she ran out and hid in a local mill hut (Tagwowyi). Subsequently, she ran to her parents who drove her back to the husband’s house. The next time she bolted out of the room where the husband had gone to her, he raised alarm and shouted for help that his wife had run out. Elders asked him the matter and he just muttered ‘she doesn’t agree’. The elders made children to chase and get her. They were escorted to their room, pushed and locked inside while the man was asked ‘to deal with her mercilessly’ for punishing him. Although there were shouts of resistance, the woman later succumbed because she was overpowered by the man. Zhayinyiko concluded by saying there is nothing wrong with the sexual demands made by the man to his wife, the ‘minus’ to it is that the woman was not prepared for it (sex) by either her family or the husband or both’ (Interview with Zhayinyikwo on February 8, 2015).

3.4.3      Religion

Religion is generally used as an instrument to perpetuate patriarchy and patriarchal attitudes are found in the various religious belief systems that exist in Gbagyi land resulting in women being relegated to a subordinate role in the Church, the family as well as in the community. According to Haralambos (1980), the inferior status of the female was traced to the Holy Bible when she tasted the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden. In Islam, especially through the Sharia Law, many restrictions are placed on the rights of women. The Sharia Law attaches importance to paternalistic interpretations to women’s appropriate roles and socio-political arrangements of the society (Makama, 2013). These practices have bolstered traditional customs that grant men control not just over women’s sexuality, but also other aspects of her life including leadership in religious matters (Human Rights Monitor, 2001; Yohanna, 2012). For example, apart from the narratives of the holy books of the Bible and Quran, women are generally treated merely as second-class citizens meant mainly for the fulfillment of the desire of man. Yohanna narrated the belief shared by the community when he said,

You know Shekwoyi (God) created man before man and the woman was ‘carved’ out from man; this means she cannot stand on her own because she is a part of a man. That is why women are weak and not as strong and tough like men. That is why they are not allowed to perform certain religious rites neither are they and children allowed to set their eyes on certain masquerades who serve as intermediaries between man and God (Interview with Baba Yohanna on 14/2/2015) Such patriarchal attitudes have seen women being forced to be submissive to males. Women are portrayed as weaker sex for giving in to the temptation that led to their fall into sin (Gen. Chapter 3). This has made men to treat women as people who have to be kept under constant supervision lest they err. The case got worse when God, according to Gen 3:16, declared that …Your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you’ (NKJV Bible, 2001). In addition, Apostle Paul in Colossians 3:18 admonished women to be submissive to their husbands’ which men had taken for granted to exploit and dominate women in all ramifications. In the Gbagyi tradition women could not atone or stand in the gap for their husbands for certain rituals. It was also common that women are prohibited from seeing eye to eye with certain masquerades or ‘gods’.

3.4.4      Education

The Gbagyi people are great farmers and depend largely on human labour for farming. Therefore, not many go to school and in homes where opportunities avail, boys and not girls are given the chance. The socialisation process ingrains the notion that girls should remain at home, responsible for caring for younger siblings through tasks such as bathing, cooking, and transporting agricultural goods to surplus market or their homes. In Nigeria, the educational system is structured in a way that reinforces existing gender disparities between girls and boys. Specifically, the textbooks used in schools predominantly depict boys as physically skilled, resilient, mentally sharp, and adventurous. Conversely, girls are portrayed as gentle, delicate, and associated with domestic chores. Even the uniforms designated for girls and boys differ, with girls’ uniforms being ill-suited for active play or activities like tree climbing that are advantageous to boys. To this, a middle-aged woman said,

it is not too long that women ‘freely’ started going to school. During our time, our parents asked us to stay back so we can go help our mothers carry our junior brothers and sisters or farm produce to and from farm (Ataknu’nyibwa, 8/2/2015).

In collaboration with the last interviewee, an old woman said,

I am able to read not because my father sent me to school, after all, my father had even died long ago, but because I married my husband who was close to the white woman who had settled in the village in order to preach the word of God. As she desired to speak the language (Gbagyi) so my husband too started to learn how to read and write and so he started to teach me. Since we abandoned traditional religion and became Christians we would go to the white woman’s lodge and she would teach us alphabets and after sometime, we began to read the Bible in Hausa and Gbagyi. Apart from that, there was no formal school or schooling for women of my age then (Shaanyisimyi, 3/3/2015).

Secondly, the educational system in Nigeria disregards the fact that children already bring pre-existing inequalities with them when they enter school. The system lacks sensitivity and awareness towards gender, promoting male role-models, male-authored textbooks, and theories that reinforce the idea of women being academically subordinate. This perpetuates the notion that women should occupy a secondary position in academia.

Thirdly, in the school environment, the girl child becomes a victim of her own sexuality. Male teachers often subject her to sexual advances in exchange for money, grades, or other material benefits. Non-compliance may result in violence. Unfortunately, girls from impoverished backgrounds find these offers irresistible. However, it is the girl who ultimately bears the consequences when she becomes pregnant or contracts sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Adding to her burden, society stigmatises her as ‘loose’ (Chirimuuta, 2006) while the male perpetrator who seduced her faces no consequences or labels.

In Nigeria and Niger State for example, the enrolment ratio for girls declines with the level of education. For instance, in junior secondary school, the enrolment ratio for girls is only 18.93% in 2005 (NGMDGR, 2006) and will be shunned by prospective partners. Since marriage is a sacred institution in the Gbagyi culture, it is society’s expectation that every woman should be married. Furthermore, parents really get worried when their daughters do not get married to the extent of consulting Ashan (gods) in order to break the curse as it is believed. As a result, education fails to offer total liberation to Gbagyi women. This perspective stems from a patriarchal mindset that considers investing in the education of girls as a financial waste, as they are expected to marry into another family and benefit them (Human Rights Monitor, 2001). Education serves as a means through which women can liberate themselves from the influence of male dominated cultural norms. However, a careful examination of educated women demonstrates that education alone does not guarantee emancipation. This is because even educated women are compelled to conform to cultural expectations, as deviating from these norms could result in being stigmatised (Chirimuuta, 2006).

3.4.5      Economy

The traditional Gbagyi society believed that a woman is an economic asset belonging to the man she is married. She was rather a means of generating income to her husband since he used her to transport any farm produce to the market he wanted to dispose of. Although, she could engage in some petty trading like making and selling of locust beans (nyise), local drink (eje), the income was used to sustain her home because the husband was not duty-bound to provide soup ingredients. She uses her income to also take care of her as well as the children’s clothing. To this Belowyi, an 87-year-old woman said,

an average Gbagyi woman should count herself lucky if the husband provides food regularly for the household. Therefore, the question of soup should not even arise from her. She has to provide soup for every meal prepared by her. Nobody needs tell her to do something to generate income for the upkeep of the household. This, she does by plaiting hair, fetching water or packing sand for building projects for a fee in addition the above petty businesses.

The limited participation of women in educational institutions results in in a smaller female representation in the corporate world, posing a significant development challenge to women’s empowerment. However, even for those who manage to enter this realm, they soon discover that men hold the reins of the economy. Patriarchal attitudes persist within the corporate world, resulting in a scarcity of women in leadership positions. Many women who have received an education often find themselves confined to less demanding roles such as secretarial or clerical positions. In specific instances, such as in public ministries and organisations in Niger State, there is a notable imbalance with more males than females occupying ministerial positions (Establishment Office, Government House, 2009). Furthermore, women often find themselves occupying less demanding roles, such as positions in Ministries of Gender, Culture or Education. Until recently, it was uncommon to see women in more challenging and influential positions like permanent secretaries or commissioners. Additionally, when women are selected as leaders, they are often subjected to higher scrutiny and are required to demonstrate their abilities to a greater extent compared to their male counterparts.

Within the corporate sector, women frequently become targets sexual harassment or violence from their superiors. This unfortunate situation arises from the superiors. This unfortunate situation arises from the perception of women primarily as sexual objects rather than human beings (Charvet, 1982). In certain instances, women may find themselves compelled to provide sexual favours to their superiors in order to be considered for promotion.

As in other places, the majority of Gbagyi women are found in rural areas where they “toil on land they do not own, to produce what they do not control and at the end of the marriage, through divorce or death they can be sent away empty handed” (Tanzanian president, Julius Nyerere at the 3^rd World Conference on Women, 1984). These women face discriminated as they are denied the rights and privileges to own land based on customary practices and laws, which traditionally designated men as the sole landowners within the cultural context (Human Rights Monitor, 2001). This situation as a result forces rural women to be dependent on males through the cycle of marriage and reproduction (Human Rights Monitor, 2001).

3.4.6      Politics

Politics is often depicted as a cultural endeavour, demanding qualities that only a few women find appealing. Women who choose to engage in politics face the challenge of having to prove themselves, demonstrating their resilience in order to withstand the pressure stemming from patriarchal attitudes that portray women as weak and unsuitable for public office. Additionally, in the political realm, women are more readily accepted and unquestioned when occupying roles such as cooks, guest entertainers. singers, and dancers. To this, a woman in her 60s said, ‘politics is a man’s business so a woman is not expected to ‘interfere’ in men’s business.’

3.5    Patriarchal Practices Leading to Male Control of Female Sexuality

As a consequence of the patrilineal and patriarchal nature of African culture, male dominance prevails over female sexuality (Khumalo and Garbus, 2009). This is depicted in the payment of agbepyi, yezhiyifa and arranged marriage.

3.5.1      Gbepyi Payment

In Gbagyi culture, the payment of gbepyi establishes the father’s ownership of children, subsequently inherit the father’s surname and citizenship. Additionally, married women are unable to transmit their citizenship rights to their children. These practices stem from Gbagyi laws that align with cultural customs deeply rooted in a patriarchal system, where women occupy subordinate positions. Simultaneously, gbepyi grants men certain rights while stripping women of their freedoms and rights, reducing them to the status of acquired property. This situation becomes more problematic when the gbepyi payment is set at a high price, as it can lead to abuse if the wife fails to comply with her husband’s expectations, despite having been ‘purchased’. Consequently, gbepyi, being an integral part of Gbagyi society’s patriarchal nature, perpetuates inequality and widens the gender gap, leaving women in a subordinate position.

3.5.2      Arranged Marriages

Arranged marriages are familiar within the Gbagyi tradition. These can be based on religion such as in the traditional and Islamic religions where young girls are married off to older male members of the sects based on beliefs (Kadandani, 2014). These girls cannot deny getting married to the men who in some cases are old enough to be their father for fear of being cut off from their families.

In some cases, some fathers marry off their daughters to older wealthy men in Islam. Furthermore, in order to appease angry spirits following offence committed by the family members of the girl, a young girl (a virgin) is given to the wronged family as a wife. In all these cases, consent is not sought from the wronged women concerned but they are forced to comply with cultural traditions.

3.5.3      Rape

The lack of agency women has over their sexuality is further manifested through instances of male relatives perpetrating sexual violence against young girls (Human Right Monitor 2001). Women are not ‘raped’ in Gbagyi society because it is believed that they are the property of men. On the other hand, an unmarried girl cannot claim to be raped because the rapist did not follow her to her father’s house. She is rather accused of being wayward and promiscuous. Married women on the other hand cannot refuse their husbands sexual advances even when not convenient and in cases where they suspect their husbands of being unfaithful, women are unable to assert their preference for safe sex since men maintain control over the sexual encounter (Meursing and Sibindi, 1995).

3.6    Conclusion and Recommendations

The young should be socialised that men and women are equal because biological differences do not mean that the other sex is inferior. The family is a major social institution and if re-socialisation starts in the family, it will permeate into other social institutions. In addition, laws should be made and policies amended to accommodate women, to grant them same sexual freedom that their male counterparts enjoy. The patriarchal structure of our society has played a significant role in establishing and perpetuating gender inequality, allowing for male dominance and the subordination of women. This unfortunate reality has been sustained by he process of socialisation. To rectify this situation, it is crucial to undertake a process of re=socialisation. All individuals involved in in mass education or public speaking should make a conscious effort to highlight the profound gap that culture has created between men and women. Encouraging lectures and seminars that address the impact of culture can be instrumental in this endeavour. Moreover, involving men in thiese discussions can have significant impact.

Furthermore, it is essential to recognise patriarchy as a social construct rather than a biological one. Women should be encouraged to understand how cultural norms have confined them, as many have come to accept the existing power dynamics and male dominance. Emphasising gender equality to the younger generation is crucial, as it is necessary to instil the understanding that biological differences do not imply inferiority of either sex. Given that the family is a key social institution, initiating re-socialisation within families can help permeate these values into other social spheres.

Additionally, it is vital to enact laws and amend policies that accommodate women and grant them the same sexual freedoms enjoyed by their male counterparts. By creating an inclusive legal and policy framework, women can be empowered and their rights upheld.

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