CHAPTER TWO

2.1Writing Chapter Two of the Report - Literature Review

Many students have asked some questions regarding literature review. Some of these questions include:

What is literature?
What is literature review?
Why do we review literature?
How should literature review be conducted?

Some attempts are made in this chapter to provide answers, to these questions.

2.1.1What Is Literature

Literature refers to a collection of printed materials provided in the form of book journals, magazines, newspapers, abstracts, extracts, etc.. dealing with specific subject. All the writings or contents will be addressing a particular area of knowledge: it also. Refers.to all. The writings of a.-country. at a period of rime as in the case of the French, Literature, English literature,’ the Nigerian literature. (Hornby, 1974). Also, literature refers to all pruned materials describing or advertising something.

2.1.2What Is Literature Review?

Literature review as far as research work is concerned is an exhaustive … survey or search of what has been done or known on a given problem. When a researcher identifies problem and raises topic therefrom, he is obliged to review what has been written already, regarding the problem or related areas He would want to know other studies done m the area and the extent of work done. This will enable him decide whether to continue the study or not; or whether to change his approach or not.

2.1.3We Review Literature?

These are some of the reasons for reviewing literature.

The literature review helps the researcher to discover the extent of work done already in the problem area.
To help formulate some hypotheses or straighten out the research questions.
To help build a mental picture of what the solution to the problem may likely be.
To discover whether the problem has, already been studied’ i.e., to ascertain whether the answer to the problem under study has already been provided and documented - to prevent unnecessary duplication and waste of efforts.
To discover other possible problems arising as a result of the problem to be studied.
It sharpens the general picture of the problem under focus so that the researcher obtains a more precise knowledge of the problem.
To discover, research techniques arguments, analysis, and conclusions of previous studies of similar nature.
To define and control goals in a research study.
Literature review gives insights into methods to be used in the study as well as new approaches.
It helps the researcher to admit his research problems
It also-exposes the significance of the study;-who should benefit: from the study and how to-benefit.
Exposes the gap that is existing after previous studies which the present study should aim at filling.

2.1.4The Design of Literature Review

There are various designs for writing literature review. Many Institutions: (Universities, colleges and polytechnics) adept the design that suits their convenience. The general or universal design for writing literature. Revise is itemized below.

Break-up the review in line with topic research questions and hypotheses
Introduce the steps with a sentence or two.
Review Literature sequentially as. arranged; sub-heading arising from research questions and hypotheses.
Relate each sub-section to the topic i.e., put each sub-section into perspective. In other words, let each step attempt to throw light to the topic or the problem.
Make a summary of the review at the end, expressly showing the gap your study intends to fill

2.1.5Breaking - Up Review in Line with Research Questions and Hypotheses

What is required is that if you have five research questions, it is expected that you should have at least five sub-headings in the literature review, each research question being reflected in the sub-headings review. Literature review blows light upon the research questions which, guide the study. It throws light which enables the-researcher see early the boundaries or the scope of the question. Let us give example with our former research question viz. ‘Job satisfaction among Technical teachers in Enugu State.’ For literature review, the researcher may raise sub-headings as follows:

Job satisfaction
Technical teachers
Productivity among technical teachers
Summary of literature review

For masters and doctoral theses, it is always expedient to start with theoretical framework; philosophical frame work or historical frame work depending on the one that suits the study. This means that the’ first subheading for higher degree should be the frame work. However, it should not be seen as a law to include the framework. It should be included if it is found necessary and if one’s supervisor approves of it. In any case, it points to the maturity level of the researcher.

There is no one way of introducing the chapter. A simple introducing the chapter. A simple introduction should be used. An example has been shown below:

The related literature has been reviewed under the following study heading:

Theoretical, or philosophical framework of productivity among workers.
Job satisfaction.
Technical teachers in Enugu State.
Productivity among technical teachers
Summary of literature review,

2.1.6Sequence in the Review

The researcher should arrange the subheadings so that one flows into the other. He will review the literature in sequence as it is listed, making s’ there is a summary of the review at the end.

2.1.7Putting Sub-Headings into Perspective

Each sub-heading should be linked to the topic or the problem under study often, students write sub-headings that are distinct from each, other and which have no connection with the main topic. Each sentence or should flow and point to the topic under study. Disjointed ideas or study headings do not contribute significantly towards the entire objective of the study.

2.1.8Summarizing the Literature Review

Literature is not reviewed for formality as sortie students tend to think. on cardinal objective of the review is to discover the gap that has existed after other researchers have made their contributions. This is necessary because it is expected that after the findings have been made, during the discussion the researcher should be able to show evidence that his study has what filled the gap or not. So, there is always a link between the literature review and the findings of the study. It is in the summary of the literature review that the researcher raises as it were, one part of the hook, while the second part is raised and connected in the discussion of the findings made in the study.

2.1.9Conducting Literature Review

Literature can be reviewed following some steps namely:

Step one: List key words in the topic. For example, in the topic Job satisfaction among technical teachers, the key words are;

Jot

Job satisfaction Teachers

Technical teachers'

Productivity among workers

The researcher can go to the library and read books, journals, magazines, newspapers which have articles reflecting the key-words. As he-reads, he jots down important assertions or comments considered relevant to the problem under study.

Step Two: Cheek preliminary sources. These include index, abstracts etc.. that are intended to help one identify and locate research articles and other sources of information. See also the following:

Resources in educational index
Current index to journals
Thesaurus (a book that enables one identify words of similar meanings),
Descriptions and
Psychological abstracts.

2.1.10Making Use of the Library and the Librarians

Librarians all over the world have classified knowledge into several subjects and further re-classified the subjects into several headings sub headings and sub-sub-headings. All you have to do is to tell them. librarian what problem you are investigating, give him or her some time, and the librarian will be able to give you back a list of references of works that have been published in the area of your interest. The librarians have been trained to assist readers specially to get to the information they need; Therefore, make use of the librarians, go to them and where possible pester them until 1 they satisfy you. The librarian will be glad that he helped you. That is part 1 of the etiquette of their profession.

2.1.11Sources of Information/Data

Primary Sources: These are sources which contain direct or original accounts of an event or phenomenon given by someone who actually 1 observed the event or the phenomenon. Such sources include: Students! Research project reports, report of research conducted at the national or international level, journals, abstracts, publications,conference proceedings, technical reports, periodicals etc..

Secondary Sources: Theses are materials which contain an account of an event or phenomenon by someone who did not actually witness the event or I the phenomenon. one cannot be sure or determine how much the author of I secondary source materials has altered the original or primary materials Secondary sources include textbooks, other books, reviews of research reports, encyclopaedias, book reviews etc..

Specific Literature Sources: These are:

Encyclopedias And Dictionaries

for accurate definitions

clearer comprehension of key terms and concepts.

b). Books

detailed knowledge in the area where the. Researcher intends to cover. Many, books should be read to compare knowledge, or contents since they are secondary sources.

(c) Journals And Periodicals

these contain the original research reports of other research workers

the knowledge contained in them represent the most recent in the field

- they are primary sources; they have been critiqued and assessed before publication.-

(d) Magazines And Newspapers

these show current views and opinions of people in the particular area of interest.

(e) Students’ Projects, Theses or Dissertations

useful sources of information

usually contains, the most current format or method of research report.

Note:Don’t duplicate errors. That a thesis or project report has been examined; assessed and deposited in the library does not mean that it does not contain any error/at all from the beginning to the end, so, be careful in picking materials or information.

2.1.12Preliminary Library Information Sources

These sources include:

The Catalogue

provides information leading to the location and retrieval of books in a library. There are two types of catalogues namely:

the subject catalogue and

the author catalogue

The Index

this lead? to the retrieval of articles published in journals There are

subject index and
author index

there are also Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE) etc. and others. The Abstract This consists of a short account of a work in addition information necessary for the retrieval of the work. Necessary information such as name of author, title of work, journal volume, number, pages and date are obtained therefrom.

there are psychological abstracts; sociological abstracts etc..

2.1.13Organization of Information Collected

The following suggestions, can guide the researcher:

Arrange the review In Sub Themes
synthesize and organize information in sub-themes. The appropriate sub-themes should relate to the topic of the research
Paraphrasing
In reviewing literature, a passage or an idea can either be paraphrased or cited. For paraphrasing, the reviewer re-states the passages in his own words. This means that* an idea can be rewritten in another form other than the form it was found.
Quotation or Citation

In citation, usually passages are lifted the way they are.

In the past, if a passage is cited, it was enclosed with quotation marks. Such practice is no more in vogue as different styles of citation unfold every day. Long passages (e.g. 4o words and above) are usually indented. Indenting refers to the style of writing in which the passage is placed at the centre of the page with ample margin on both sides. If a quotation is indented, the page from where it was ' lifted.is usually included.

In reviewing literature the researcher is advised to consider the following suggestions:

It is important to note that too much volume of literature review is not necessarily the best practice. Sometimes, it makes the reader to derail off the train of thoughts the researcher is leading ‘him to; further, the volume may discourage the reader and he will feel disinterested in reading the- entire literature review. If your reader feels bored over your reviewed work, he may simply glance through and assess the work grudgingly and subjectively. The volume of literature review should be moderate and tailored towards the research questions and hypotheses. For first degree project 15 to 3o pages are ideal; for masters degree project 3o to 55 pages are good; and for doctoral (Ph.D.) thesis 6o pages and above are conducive. However, there is no hard and fast rule in the volume. Some works have large volume of reviewed literature but disjointed, rendering the volume useless and unacademic.
Do not introduce words that will compel the reader to go to dictionary first before understanding them. Experts in research are not interested in high sounding words or big words but in the systematic way of arriving at the findings and the conclusions made in the work.
Always endeavor to summarize your literature review at the end of the review; you should be able to articulate the state of the art with respect to the problem under study. In other words, you should be able to know the current work and efforts made by other people in that area of study. This is necessary since you will have to refer to the level of their efforts during discussions of your findings. You will see that as you refer to their contributions in your own discussion of findings one will be able to know whether your study made any significant contributions towards* the solution to the problem studied. The researcher will have a sense of achievement if he made some contributions to knowledge and this is how knowledge advances.
Always acknowledge the contributions of other people. Do not lift passages or ideas and claim them as your own. That practice, is referred to as plagiarism. If you. take someone’s statement from his work you should show that the idea is from the person and not from you
There is the need to be mindful of tenses, spellings and grammar. Ideas, expressed, in writing should be smooth and flow freely into the, ears of the reader. Bad grammar annoys the reader and it raises unfriendly repulsive attitude between the work and the reader.

Figure 5.1: Guide to Reviewing Literature in the Library

The steps shown in figure 5.1 can be very helpful when the researcher is reviewing related literature to his topic. The researcher will not fail to start first to consult his own books, journals, etc., that are relevant to his topic. one of the most important needs of the researcher is to understand the problem under study and how to get to the solution. Remember to run back to your supervisor or other experts whenever you are in difficulty.

Review Questions

What is literature review?
State five reasons for reviewing literature
Why should the literature be connected with Research Questions and Hypotheses?
What do you understand by putting your work into perspective?
Write Short Notes on:
Primary sources of data
Secondary sources of data
The Catalogue
The Abstract’
The Index
Choose a researchable topic and discuss. How you can carry out literature review on the topic.
Differentiate between paraphrasing and citation.
a. What is plagiarism?
b. How will the researcher avoid plagiarism?

2.1.14Organizing and Presenting Research Report

Most students type their own theses while others have them typed by secretaries who are not familiar with thesis form and university requirements. For both of these groups as well as others, the following guidelines and suggestions should be of assistance in producing a satisfactory finished typescript. It must be emphasized, however, that although this chapter is designed specially to guide the student and the typist, it does not contain all that he or she needs to know in order to produce a paper in acceptable final form. Familiarity with the references cited at the end of this chapter is necessary.

2.1.15Responsibilities of the Student and of the Typist

Much misunderstanding and frustration can be avoided by establishing a clear line of responsibilities between the student and the typist. Areas of responsibilities should be discussed in definite terms and agreed upon before the typist begins. The student should be responsible for the correct presentation of his paper in its entirety including all the preliminary, illustrative avid reference matter. The student should also be responsible for the main body of the text. The typist, on the other hand will be responsible for producing a true and exact copy of the draft submitted by the student- This responsibility encompasses wording, punctuation and spelling, although an obvious case of misspelling should be called to the student’s attention and corrected. The typist should be expected to assume responsibility for any retyping that is required because of intrusion into margins, particularly on the right-hand side. Word divisions should be kept to a reasonable minimum, but because of inevitable variation in length of lines, the typist must also be responsible for proper syllabication of words when required.at the end of lines.

A typist should be expected to give a quick proofreading to each page before removing it from the machine. Simple corrections can usually be mad at this time so that they are hardly noticeable. The discovery ‘of even typographical errors usually requires a retyping of the entire page if the sheets have been removed. The reason is that the original and carbon copies cannot be placed back on top of each other exactly enough to make correction with the use of carbon paper. Corrections made separately on each sheet are particularly noticeable on the carbon copies. After removing the pages from the machine, the typist should proofread them a second time. Errors missed the first time are frequently caught in this way.

The typist is responsible for cleaning the typewriter keys at frequent intervals so as to guarantee the best possible impression. The agreement between the student and the typist should also be explicit with respect to cost, time schedule, and any unusual requirements not ordinarily included in typing straight copy.

Paper

Most universities require the student ^ copies of his thesis typed on a good quality bond and quarto size. A rag content of twenty-five or fifty percent ordinarily required. The higher the percentage the mire durable is the paper. The so-called erasable paper should not be used unless it is specified by the institution to which the paper is to be presented.

Typewriter

Either pica type (ten spaces to the inch) or elite type (twelve spaces to the inch) is satisfactory for most typing jobs. Use of elite type results in an increase of about one fifth in the amount of typewritten material that can be put on one page. Elite type is recommended, but the student should make sure that it is acceptable to the institution in which he is doing his work.

Guide Sheets

There are different ways that the typist may keep track of the point on the page where he is typing. The typist can use a special guide sheet drawn on onion-skin or other thin paper that make the lines and numbers extra-dark. When this sheet is placed between the original copy and the first sheet of the carbon paper, the typist can read through to it and know exactly where he is working on the page.

Another method which may be used is a sheet of paper, nine inches in width with lines of type numbered in both ascending and descending order from the point at which the first line of typed material appears on the page to the point at which all typing should end. These line numbers are placed on the extreme right-hand side of the sheet. When this guide e is Placed behind the last sheet of typing paper, the one-half inch with the number extends to the right beyond the thus the typist has it in sight all the time and always knows ‘rom it where he is vertically on the page. Whether a special guide sheet is used or not, the typist must bear in mind that twenty-seven double-spaced lines are all that should be placed on any page of properly proportioned thesis work. If any deviation is allowed, not more than one single-spaced line above or below that limit is permissible.

Corrections and Erasures

The number of corrections to be made should be kept to a minimum and made as neatly as possible. Pen-and-ink corrections, whether in the form of changed letters, deleted letters or words, or added letters or words, are never permissible in a thesis. Either the error should be corrected on the typewriter or the page should be retyped.

Erasures should be reduced to a minimum and made with such skill on both the original and the copies that they will not be noticeable. Wherever possible they should be made before the page is removed from the typewriter. Typists should form the habit of looking over each page before removing it from the machine. once withdrawn, each copy of the set should be corrected separately by direct type rather than all together by restacking and insertion of carbons. Care should be taken to strike the keys heavily or lightly, as the case may require, so that the corrected portions may match in colour as neatly as possible the rest of the typed material on the page.

Ribbon

Ribbons of superior quality are most satisfactory in typing the final copy of the thesis. Medium inked black ribbon produce greater uniformity of impression than the light inked or the heavy inked. To achieve superior uniformity of type colour it is desirable to have on hand before the typing is begun enough ribbon of the same kind to complete the job. The typist should obtain a supply of ribbons so as to be able to change them after each twenty-five pages or so.

Proofreading

The student should reread the final draft copy of his thesis before delivering it to the typist. After the typist has proofread each page, both before and after removing it from the typewriter, the student is again responsible for a final, extremely careful proofreading. No matter how many times a student and a typist check a thesis for typographical errors, at least one always seems to escape detection. The aim, of course, must be to reduce undetected errors to the lowest minimum that is humanly feasible to achieve.

Verb Tense

The manuscript should be written basically in the past tense. This is because a thesis recounts what has already been accomplished. It does not, however, mean that the author may not use present tense and future tense forms. When the writer uses the present tense, he should make it clear to the reader that the explanation or discussion in which these tenses are used has to do with what will be true at some future time of reading! Frequent use of these tends to confuse the reader and to give the notion that the thesis is merely a general discussion or an essay embodying unsubstantiated opinions of the author.

Many students find it difficult to cite findings of others. A helpful suggestion is to bear in mind that the individual being cited did his work and wrote his article at some time in the past. If his findings are described in the past tense, it often gives the impression that those findings are no longer true. To avoid this false impression, a present tense verb can be used in the dependent clause within the sentence. For example, Uwaeme found (past tense) that shorthand teachers do not possess (present tense) the necessary textbooks to encourage their students to do homework assignments.

Some students get into difficulty when they confuse the Perfect with the imperfect tenses. It is wise for the student to maintain an orientation as to what will be the correct time relationship for a reader one year after the paper is completed. Furthermore, a careful use of would and could should be made in order to improve the effectiveness of expression.

Clarity

Clarity in writing is essential. Be precise and clear in presenting ideas. Eliminate jargon that most readers will not comprehend. Sometimes a researcher will develop an abbreviated notation for referring to a specific variable procedure; such abbreviations may be convenient when communicating with others who are directly involved in the research project, but they are confusing for the general reader.

The entire report should be coherent. Ideas should be presented in an orderly, logical progression to facilitate understanding. The researcher must remember that he is writing for someone who is being (introduced to new ideas and research findings for the first time. The researcher’s choice of words, sentence structure, and general organization should be directed toward facilitating communication with the reader.

The first draft of the thesis report is bound to be rough and will need to be improved. It is normally a good idea to re-read the report a few days after writing the first draft and to make corrections that are necessary. It is necessary to find one or more people who will critically read your report and make suggestions for improvement. The researcher should not ‘be angry or defensive when he receives the criticism he asked for. The researcher should be prepared, then, to write several more drafts before a satisfactory finished product can be achieved.

Acknowledging the Work of others

It is extremely important to clearly separate the researcher’s own words and ideas from those obtained from other sources

A passage drawn from an article or book should be presented as a direct quotation or paraphrase and the source acknowledged there is nothing wrong with quoting another author as the source, acknowledged. on no account should another person s idea be presented as the researchers own. This is plagiarism and is inexcusable. It is also unethical and. sometimes illegal.

References and Bibliographies

Because of the need to related the research to a body of knowledge a list of references will be a vital element of a master s doctoral thesis. Such a list will include all relevant works which have been consulted by the author and which have been cited in the text. A distinction is made between a list of references and a bibliography where the latter is supplied as a comprehensive coverage of books and journals in an area, even though these may not have been cited in the text. Most thesis will not carry a bibliography unless the researcher has publication in mind.

The references begin on a new page in the report. The references must contain complete citations for all sources mentioned in the report. No source from the list of references should be omitted; also any sources that are not mentioned in the report should not be included in the references. They, however, can be included in the bibliography. In the body of the thesis report, references are cited by giving the last name of the author, followed by the date of publication.

The following citation methods are in order:

Adams (1999) found that ….
In a recent study on looting (Adams, 1999) ….
Writing on capacity building, osuala (1998) gives ….

Each complete citation in the reference list show the name of author the title of the publication, and facts of publication. The reference lists at the end of the chapters in this book follows APA style. other faculties may require different forms. It is necessary to check the rules for references before a student; writes his or her report. Furthermore, if the student is writing in strict APA style, he should follow the current format for citing the references.

Sexist Language

one aspect of style on which students often seek guidance is the use of personal pronouns. Because student projects are usually of a personal nature there is obviously much scope for “I” to be used throughout the report. This may be avoided by the use of the passive voice; thus: ‘It was found …’ is used instead of ‘I found that traditionally, in most fields of research use of the passive voice has been favored. Students should avoid sexist language, namely the use of “he”, “his”, “hers”, “man”, “man’s”, “I”, “we”, and so on when both males and females are meant. Usually, sentences can be rephrased or specific pronouns deleted to avoid biases implied by sexist language.

Preparing for an oral Examination

It is possible that at all levels of writing, whether dissertation or thesis, the student will be called upon to meet one or more examiners in order to defend his conclusions verbally; the award of a Ph.D will certainly involve this. The wise student will accordingly prepare for it as thoroughly as he can with a view to confirming the high opinion that the examiners should already have conceived of his research from the study of his written report. The academic world is, of course, well known for its conflicts of opinions on topics and the doctoral student should do his best to ensure that there will be no antipathy towards him simply because of the line of argument he has pursued.

The student should attempt to place himself in the position of the examiner and consider the type of question which he may put in order to evaluate the report. To provide the student with a systematic basis for anticipating how his research may be evaluated, a number of questions under each of the criteria below are posed which the doctoral student should seek to satisfy. To do this, a checklist proposed by Hansen and Waterman (1966) is drawn upon in part.

Evidence of an original investigation or the testing of ideas.
Was the purpose of the researcher clearly described?
Were the hypotheses to be tested, questions to be answered, or methods to be developed clearly stated?
Was the relationship between the current and previous researcher in related topic areas defined, with similarities and differences stressed?
Are the nature and extent of the original contribution clear?
Competence in independent work or experimentation.
Was the methodology employed appropriate? Was its use justified and was the way it was applied adequately described?
Were variables that might influence the study recognised and either controlled in the research design or properly measured?
Were valid and reliable instruments used to collect the data?
Was there evidence of care and accuracy in recording and summarising the data?
Is evidence displayed of knowledge of and ability to use all relevant data sources?
Were limitations inherent in the study recognised and stated?
Were the conclusions reached justified in the light of the data and the way they were analyzed?
An understanding of appropriate techniques.
Given the facilities available, did it/seem that the best possible techniques were employed to gather and analyse data?
Was full justification given for the use of the techniques selected and were they adequately described? In particular, were they properly related to the stated purpose of the research?
Ability to make critical use of published works and source materials.
Was the literature referenced pertinent to the research?
To what extent could general reference to the literature be criticised on the grounds of insufficiency or excessiveness?
Was evidence presented of skills in searching the literature?
Was due credit given to previous workers for ideas and techniques used by the author?
Is evidence displayed of the ability to identify key items in the literature and to compare, contrast and critically review them?
Appreciation of the relationship of the special theme to wider field of knowledge.
Was the relationship between the current and previous research in related topic areas defined, with similarities and differences stressed?
Was literature in related disciplines reviewed?
Was an attempt made to present previous work within an overall conceptual framework and in a systematic way?
Worthy, in part, of publication.
Was the organisation of the report logical and was the style attractive?
Was there evidence of innovation in research methodology compared with previous practice in the field?
Distinct contribution to knowledge.
What new material was reported?
To what extent would the new material be perceived as a valuable addition to a field of knowledge?
To what extent do the conclusion overturn or challenge previous beliefs?
Were the findings compared with the findings of any similar studies?
Was the new contribution clearly delimited and prospects further work identified?
To what extent does the work open up whole new areas for future research?

The student should rehearse his answers to an appropriate selection from the above list of questions. This procedure should indicate what additional evidence will need to be taken into the examination. In the main, any supplementary material will relate to the data gathering and analytical phases, but may also include papers which the student has written during his research.

Whatever the level of the examination, it should go without saying that the student, if called upon, will be able to defend, explain, elaborate, or even apologise for any part of it. If an unacceptable weakness is found by such a student after a thesis has been submitted, criticism is best anticipated and coped with by preparing a typed statement for distribution at the start of the examination.

With regard to the oral examination itself, possibly the most important advice that can be offered is that the student should not attempt to “pull the wool over the examiners’ eyes. Very rarely will it be possible to get away with this in front of experts. It is far better that the student should admit to his shortcomings even if this means that, in part, the report will have to be rewritten.

Questions for Review

Differentiate between the responsibilities of the student and the typist in a typical agreement.
What type of paper is usually recommended for typing the final copy of a student thesis?
Write a short note on each of the following typefaces: (a) Pica type (b) Elite type
What is the minimum number of corrections and erasures a typist would be allowed to make on each completed page of a research paper?
What is the importance of proofreading?
Discuss the importance of using the past tense in the writing of a thesis. Under what circumstances, if any, should the student use the present tense in writing his thesis?
Briefly explain the rules concerning the following: pagination, footnotes, spacing, margins, books, journals, newspaper articles, unpublished works, and bibliography.